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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sensor</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Sensor_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sensor (disambiguation)">Sensor (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sensors" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="Sensors_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sensors (disambiguation)">Sensors (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Detector" redirects here. For detector circuits in radio and other signal-related electronics, see <a href="Detector_(radio)" title="Detector (radio)">Detector (radio)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Censer" title="Censer">Censer</a>, <a href="Censor_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Censor (disambiguation)">Censor</a>, <a href="Censure" title="Censure">Censure</a>, or <a href="Senser" title="Senser">Senser</a>.</div>

<p>A <b>sensor</b> is often defined as a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. The stimulus is the quantity, property, or condition that is sensed and converted into electrical signal.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor.

</p><p>Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (<a href="Tactile_sensor" title="Tactile sensor">tactile sensor</a>) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in <a href="Micromachinery" title="Micromachinery">micromachinery</a> and easy-to-use <a href="Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a> platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure and flow measurement,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example into <a href="Attitude_and_heading_reference_system" title="Attitude and heading reference system">MARG sensors</a>.

</p><p>Analog sensors such as <a href="Potentiometer" title="Potentiometer">potentiometers</a> and <a href="Force-sensing_resistor" title="Force-sensing resistor">force-sensing resistors</a> are still widely used. Their applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, <a href="Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a> and many other aspects of our day-to-day life. There is a wide range of other sensors that measure chemical and physical properties of materials, including optical sensors for refractive index measurement, vibrational sensors for fluid viscosity measurement, and electro-chemical sensors for monitoring pH of fluids.

</p><p>A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much its output changes when the input quantity it measures changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1  cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, its sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope <span class="texhtml">dy/dx</span> assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages.<sup id="cite_ref-yan_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a <a href="Microscopic_scale" title="Microscopic scale">microscopic scale</a> as microsensors using <a href="Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">MEMS</a> technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly faster measurement time and higher sensitivity compared with <a href="Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-yan_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the increasing demand for rapid, affordable and reliable information in today's world, disposable sensors—low-cost and easy‐to‐use devices for short‐term monitoring or single‐shot measurements—have recently gained growing importance. Using this class of sensors, critical analytical information can be obtained by anyone, anywhere and at any time, without the need for recalibration and worrying about contamination.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_measurement_errors">Classification of measurement errors</h2></div>

<p>A good sensor obeys the following rules:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li>it is sensitive to the measured property</li>

<li>it is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application, and</li>

<li>it does not influence the measured property.</li></ul>

<p>Most sensors have a <a href="Linearity" title="Linearity">linear</a> <a href="Transfer_function" title="Transfer function">transfer function</a>. The <a href="Sensitivity_(electronics)" title="Sensitivity (electronics)">sensitivity</a> is then defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is constant with the units [V/K]. The sensitivity is the slope of the transfer function. Converting the sensor's electrical output (for example V) to the measured units (for example K) requires dividing the electrical output by the slope (or multiplying by its reciprocal). In addition, an offset is frequently added or subtracted. For example, −40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to −40 C input.

</p><p>For an analog sensor signal to be processed or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to a digital signal, using an <a href="Analog-to-digital_converter" title="Analog-to-digital converter">analog-to-digital converter</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sensor_deviations">Sensor deviations</h3></div>

<p>Since sensors cannot replicate an ideal <a href="Transfer_function" title="Transfer function">transfer function</a>, several types of deviations can occur which limit sensor <a href="Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">accuracy</a>:

</p>

<ul><li>Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The <a href="Full_scale" title="Full scale">full scale</a> range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property. </li>

<li>The <a href="Sensitivity_(electronics)" title="Sensitivity (electronics)">sensitivity</a> may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error. This is an error in the slope of a linear transfer function.</li>

<li>If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant, the sensor has an offset error or <a href="Bias" title="Bias">bias</a>. This is an error in the <a href="Y-intercept" title="Y-intercept">y-intercept</a> of a linear transfer function.</li>

<li><a href="Nonlinearity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonlinearity">Nonlinearity</a> is deviation of a sensor's transfer function from a straight line transfer function. Usually, this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.</li>

<li>Deviation caused by rapid changes of the measured property over time is a <a href="Dynamics_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamics (physics)">dynamic</a> error. Often, this behavior is described with a <a href="Bode_plot" title="Bode plot">bode plot</a> showing sensitivity error and phase shift as a function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.</li>

<li>If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as <a href="Drift_(telecommunication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Drift (telecommunication)">drift</a>. Long term drift over months or years is caused by physical changes in the sensor.</li>

<li><a href="Noise" title="Noise">Noise</a> is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.</li>

<li>A <a href="Hysteresis" title="Hysteresis">hysteresis</a> error causes the output value to vary depending on the previous input values. If a sensor's output is different depending on whether a specific input value was reached by increasing vs. decreasing the input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error.</li>

<li>If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured property. This error is also called <a href="Quantization_(signal_processing)" title="Quantization (signal processing)">quantization</a> error.</li>

<li>If the signal is monitored digitally, the <a href="Sampling_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Sampling frequency">sampling frequency</a> can cause a dynamic error, or if the input variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency near a multiple of the sampling rate, <a href="Aliasing" title="Aliasing">aliasing</a> errors may occur.</li>

<li>The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.</li></ul>

<p>All these deviations can be classified as <a href="Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">systematic errors</a> or <a href="Random_errors" class="mw-redirect" title="Random errors">random errors</a>. Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of <a href="Calibration" title="Calibration">calibration</a> strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by <a href="Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a>, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behavior of the sensor.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resolution">Resolution</h3></div>

<p>The <i>sensor resolution</i> or <i>measurement resolution</i> is the smallest change that can be detected in the quantity that is being measured. The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the <a href="Numerical_resolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Numerical resolution">numerical resolution</a> of the digital output. The resolution is related to the <a href="Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">precision</a> with which the measurement is made, but they are not the same thing. A sensor's accuracy may be considerably worse than its resolution.

</p>

<ul><li>For example, the <b>distance resolution</b> is the minimum distance that can be accurately measured by any <a href="List_of_length%2C_distance%2C_or_range_measuring_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="List of length, distance, or range measuring devices">distance-measuring devices</a>. In a <a href="Time-of-flight_camera" title="Time-of-flight camera">time-of-flight camera</a>, the distance resolution is usually equal to the <a href="Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">standard deviation</a> (total noise) of the signal expressed in <a href="Unit_of_length" title="Unit of length">unit of length</a>.</li>

<li>The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_sensor">Chemical sensor</h2></div>

<p>A chemical sensor is a self-contained analytical device that can provide information about the chemical composition of its environment, that is, a <a href="Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> or a <a href="Gas_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas phase">gas phase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The information is provided in the form of a measurable physical signal that is correlated with the <a href="Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> of a certain chemical species (termed as <a href="Analyte" title="Analyte">analyte</a>). Two main steps are involved in the functioning of a chemical sensor, namely, recognition and <a href="Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">transduction</a>. In the recognition step, analyte molecules interact selectively with <a href="Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptor molecules</a> or sites included in the structure of the recognition element of the sensor. Consequently, a characteristic physical parameter varies and this variation is reported by means of an integrated <a href="Transducer" title="Transducer">transducer</a> that generates the output signal.

A chemical sensor based on recognition material of biological nature is a <a href="Biosensor" title="Biosensor">biosensor</a>. However, as synthetic <a href="Biomimetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomimetic">biomimetic</a> materials are going to substitute to some extent recognition biomaterials, a sharp distinction between a biosensor and a standard chemical sensor is superfluous. Typical biomimetic materials used in sensor development are <a href="Molecularly_imprinted_polymer" title="Molecularly imprinted polymer">molecularly imprinted polymers</a> and <a href="Aptamer" title="Aptamer">aptamers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_sensor_array">Chemical sensor array</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Chemical_sensor_array" title="Chemical sensor array">Chemical sensor array</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_sensor_array&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

A <a href="Chemical_sensor_array" title="Chemical sensor array">chemical sensor array</a> is a sensor architecture with multiple sensor components that create a pattern for analyte detection from the additive responses of individual sensor components. There exist several types of chemical sensor arrays including electronic, optical, acoustic wave, and potentiometric devices. These chemical sensor arrays can employ multiple sensor types that are cross-reactive or tuned to sense specific analytes.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemical_sensor_array_:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemical_sensor_array_:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chemical_sensor_array_:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemical_sensor_array_:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chemical_sensor_array_:3_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemical_sensor_array_:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chemical_sensor_array_:4_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemical_sensor_array_:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biosensor">Biosensor</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Biosensor" title="Biosensor">Biosensor</a></div>

<p>In <a href="Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">biomedicine</a> and <a href="Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, sensors which detect <a href="Analyte" title="Analyte">analytes</a> thanks to a biological component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or <a href="Biomimetic_polymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomimetic polymer">biomimetic polymers</a>, are called <a href="Biosensor" title="Biosensor">biosensors</a>.

Whereas a non-biological sensor, even organic (carbon chemistry), for biological analytes is referred to as sensor or <a href="Nanosensor" title="Nanosensor">nanosensor</a>. This terminology applies for both <a href="In-vitro" class="mw-redirect" title="In-vitro">in-vitro</a> and in vivo applications.

The encapsulation of the biological component in biosensors, presents a slightly different problem that ordinary sensors; this can either be done by means of a <a href="Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">semipermeable barrier</a>, such as a <a href="Dialysis_(chemistry)" title="Dialysis (chemistry)">dialysis</a> membrane or a <a href="Hydrogel" title="Hydrogel">hydrogel</a>, or a 3D polymer matrix, which either physically constrains the sensing <a href="Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">macromolecule</a> or chemically constrains the macromolecule by bounding it to the scaffold.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neuromorphic_sensors">Neuromorphic sensors</h2></div>

<p><a href="Neuromorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic">Neuromorphic</a> sensors are sensors that physically mimic structures and functions of biological neural entities.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example of this is the <a href="Event_camera" title="Event camera">event camera</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="MOS_sensors">MOS sensors</h2></div>

<p>The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960,<sup id="cite_ref-:02_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek1202_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek1202-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MOSFET sensors (MOS sensors) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physical</a>, <a href="Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemical</a>, <a href="Biological" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological">biological</a> and <a href="Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environmental</a> parameters.<sup id="cite_ref-Bergveld_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biochemical_sensors">Biochemical sensors</h3></div>

<p>A number of MOSFET sensors have been developed, for measuring <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physical</a>, <a href="Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemical</a>, <a href="Biological" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological">biological</a>, and <a href="Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environmental</a> parameters.<sup id="cite_ref-Bergveld_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest MOSFET sensors include the open-gate field-effect transistor (OGFET) introduced by Johannessen in 1970,<sup id="cite_ref-Bergveld_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="Ion-sensitive_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion-sensitive field-effect transistor">ion-sensitive field-effect transistor</a> (ISFET) invented by <a href="Piet_Bergveld" title="Piet Bergveld">Piet Bergveld</a> in 1970,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a> FET (ADFET) <a href="Patented" class="mw-redirect" title="Patented">patented</a> by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a <a href="Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>-sensitive MOSFET demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975.<sup id="cite_ref-Bergveld_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance,<sup id="cite_ref-Bergveld_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and where the <a href="Metal_gate" title="Metal gate">metal gate</a> is replaced by an <a href="Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>-sensitive <a href="Membrane" title="Membrane">membrane</a>, <a href="Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> solution and <a href="Reference_electrode" title="Reference electrode">reference electrode</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoning_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoning-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ISFET is widely used in <a href="Biomedical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical">biomedical</a> applications, such as the detection of <a href="DNA_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA hybridization">DNA hybridization</a>, <a href="Biomarker" title="Biomarker">biomarker</a> detection from <a href="Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="Antibody" title="Antibody">antibody</a> detection, <a href="Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> measurement, <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a> sensing, and <a href="Genetic_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic technology">genetic technology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoning_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoning-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>By the mid-1980s, numerous other MOSFET sensors had been developed, including the <a href="Gas_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas sensor">gas sensor</a> FET (GASFET), surface accessible FET (SAFET), charge flow transistor (CFT), <a href="Pressure_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure sensor">pressure sensor</a> FET (PRESSFET), <a href="Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">chemical field-effect transistor</a> (ChemFET), <a href="ISFET" title="ISFET">reference ISFET</a> (REFET), <a href="Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">biosensor FET</a> (BioFET), <a href="Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">enzyme-modified FET</a> (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).<sup id="cite_ref-Bergveld_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergveld-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 2000s, BioFET types such as the <a href="DNA_field-effect_transistor" title="DNA field-effect transistor">DNA field-effect transistor</a> (DNAFET), <a href="Genetically_modified" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified">gene-modified</a> FET (GenFET) and <a href="Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">cell-potential</a> BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoning_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoning-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Image_sensors">Image sensors</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a>, <a href="Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">Charge-coupled device</a>, and <a href="Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">Active-pixel sensor</a></div>

<p>MOS technology is the basis for modern <a href="Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">image sensors</a>, including the <a href="Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) and the <a href="CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> <a href="Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">active-pixel sensor</a> (CMOS sensor), used in <a href="Digital_imaging" title="Digital imaging">digital imaging</a> and <a href="Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital cameras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Willard Boyle</a> and <a href="George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">George E. Smith</a> developed the CCD in 1969. While researching the MOS process, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first <a href="Digital_video_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital video camera">digital video cameras</a> for <a href="Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">television broadcasting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The MOS <a href="Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">active-pixel sensor</a> (APS) was developed by Tsutomu Nakamura at <a href="Olympus_Corporation" title="Olympus Corporation">Olympus</a> in 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakamura85_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakamura85-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CMOS active-pixel sensor was later developed by <a href="Eric_Fossum" title="Eric Fossum">Eric Fossum</a> and his team in the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-fossum93_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fossum93-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>MOS image sensors are widely used in <a href="Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">optical mouse</a> technology. The first optical mouse, invented by <a href="Richard_F._Lyon" title="Richard F. Lyon">Richard F. Lyon</a> at <a href="Xerox" title="Xerox">Xerox</a> in 1980, used a <a href="6_%CE%BCm_process" title="6 μm process">5<span class="nowrap"> </span>μm</a> <a href="NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a> sensor chip.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the first commercial optical mouse, the <a href="IntelliMouse" title="IntelliMouse">IntelliMouse</a> introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monitoring_sensors">Monitoring sensors</h3></div>

<p>MOS monitoring sensors are used for <a href="Smart_home_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart home technology">house monitoring</a>, <a href="Office" title="Office">office</a> and <a href="Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> monitoring, <a href="Traffic_monitoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic monitoring">traffic monitoring</a> (including <a href="Speed_detection_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Speed detection radar">car speed</a>, <a href="Traffic_jams" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic jams">traffic jams</a>, and <a href="Traffic_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic accidents">traffic accidents</a>), <a href="Weather_station" title="Weather station">weather monitoring</a> (such as for <a href="Rain_sensor" title="Rain sensor">rain</a>, <a href="Wind_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind meter">wind</a>, <a href="Lightning_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightning detection">lightning</a> and <a href="Storm_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm detection">storms</a>), <a href="Defense_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense technology">defense</a> monitoring, and monitoring <a href="Temperature_measurement" title="Temperature measurement">temperature</a>, <a href="Humidity_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Humidity meter">humidity</a>, <a href="Air_pollution_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Air pollution sensor">air pollution</a>, <a href="Fire_detection" title="Fire detection">fire</a>, <a href="Health_monitoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Health monitoring">health</a>, security and <a href="Lighting_control_system" title="Lighting control system">lighting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Omura3_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omura3-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MOS <a href="Gas_detector" title="Gas detector">gas detector</a> sensors are used to detect <a href="Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, <a href="Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a>, <a href="Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, <a href="Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, and other <a href="Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> substances.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other MOS sensors include <a href="Intelligent_sensor" title="Intelligent sensor">intelligent sensors</a><sup id="cite_ref-Mead_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mead-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network">wireless sensor network</a> (WSN) technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliveira_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliveira-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronics_sensors">Electronics sensors</h3></div>

<p>The typical modern <a href="CPUs" class="mw-redirect" title="CPUs">CPUs</a>, <a href="GPU" class="mw-redirect" title="GPU">GPUs</a> and <a href="System-on-a-chip" class="mw-redirect" title="System-on-a-chip">SoCs</a> are usually integrated electric sensors to detect chip temperatures, voltages and powers.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Actuator" title="Actuator">Actuator</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_acquisition" title="Data acquisition">Data acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_logger" title="Data logger">Data logger</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_sensor" title="Image sensor">Image sensor</a></li>

<li><a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>

<ul><li><a href="BioFET" class="mw-redirect" title="BioFET">BioFET</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">Chemical field-effect transistor</a></li>

<li><a href="ISFET" title="ISFET">ISFET</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_sensors" title="List of sensors">List of sensors</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_olfaction" title="Machine olfaction">Machine olfaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanosensor" title="Nanosensor">Nanosensor</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensing_floor" title="Sensing floor">Sensing floor</a></li>

<li><a href="Transducer" title="Transducer">Transducer</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network">Wireless sensor network</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFFRADEN2004" class="citation book cs1">FRADEN, JACOB (2004). <i>HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS</i> (3rd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 1. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-387-00750-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBǎnicǎ2012" class="citation book cs1">Bǎnicǎ, Florinel-Gabriel (2012). <i>Chemical Sensors and Biosensors:Fundamentals and Applications</i>. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. p. 576. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-118-35423-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Chemical_sensor_array_:0-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chemical_sensor_array_:0_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertLewisSchauerSotzing2000" class="citation journal cs1">Albert, Keith J.; Lewis, Nathan S.; Schauer, Caroline L.; Sotzing, Gregory A.; Stitzel, Shannon E.; Vaid, Thomas P.; Walt, David R. (2000-07-01). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021/cr980102w">"Cross-Reactive Chemical Sensor Arrays"</a></span>. <i>Chemical Reviews</i>. <b>100</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">2595–</span>2626. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr980102w">10.1021/cr980102w</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-2665">0009-2665</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11749297">11749297</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSunGengXueLiu2018" class="citation journal cs1">Sun, Jianhai; Geng, Zhaoxin; Xue, Ning; Liu, Chunxiu; Ma, Tianjun (17 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6187308">"A Mini-System Integrated with Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Sensor and Micro-Packed Gas Chromatographic Column"</a>. <i>Micromachines</i>. <b>9</b> (8): 408. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmi9080408">10.3390/mi9080408</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2072-666X">2072-666X</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6187308">6187308</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30424341">30424341</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Mead-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mead_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMeadIsmail1989" class="citation book cs1">Mead, Carver A.; Ismail, Mohammed, eds. (May 8, 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fennetic.net/irc/Christopher%20R.%20Carroll%20Carver%20Mead%20Mohammed%20Ismail%20Analog%20VLSI%20Implementation%20of%20Neural%20Systems.pdf"><i>Analog VLSI Implementation of Neural Systems</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science. Vol. 80. Norwell, MA: <a href="Kluwer_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kluwer Academic Publishers">Kluwer Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-1639-8">10.1007/978-1-4613-1639-8</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4613-1639-8</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Oliveira-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oliveira_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFOliveiraGoes2012" class="citation book cs1">Oliveira, Joao; Goes, João (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ahl_OuKxsToC&pg=PR7"><i>Parametric Analog Signal Amplification Applied to Nanoscale CMOS Technologies</i></a>. <a href="Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. p. 7. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781461416708</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://xem.github.io/minix86/manual/intel-x86-and-64-manual-vol3/o_fe12b1e2a880e0ce-486.html">"Page 486"</a>. <i>xem.github.io</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-01-23</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>M. Kretschmar and S. Welsby (2005), Capacitive and Inductive Displacement Sensors, in Sensor Technology Handbook, J. Wilson editor, Newnes: Burlington, MA.</li>

<li>C. A. Grimes, E. C. Dickey, and M. V. Pishko (2006), Encyclopedia of Sensors (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-58883-056-X</bdi></li>

<li>Blaauw, F.J., Schenk, H.M., Jeronimus, B.F., van der Krieke, L., de Jonge, P., Aiello, M., Emerencia, A.C. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2016.08.001">Let’s get Physiqual – An intuitive and generic method to combine sensor technology with ecological momentary assessments</a>. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, vol. 63, page 141–149.</li></ul>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/sensor" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/sensor">sensor</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q167676#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1725" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q167676#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1725" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/891594">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Sensor"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4038824-4">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85037291">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Détecteurs"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb137701324">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Détecteurs"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb137701324">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="senzory"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph117262&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007550424305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/a9cbf30a-5ce8-4a6f-8157-4e95da038dff">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style><div id="Microtechnology135" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Microtechnology" title="Microtechnology">Microtechnology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">Microelectromechanical systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Microtechnology" title="Microtechnology">Microtechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Micromachinery" title="Micromachinery">Micromachinery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interdigital_transducer" title="Interdigital transducer">Interdigital transducer</a></li>

<li><a href="Cantilever#In_microelectromechanical_systems" title="Cantilever">Cantilever</a></li>

<li><a href="Microchannel_(microtechnology)" title="Microchannel (microtechnology)">Microchannel</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Microbolometer" title="Microbolometer">Microbolometer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="Actuator" title="Actuator">Actuators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Comb_drive" title="Comb drive">Comb drive</a></li>

<li><a href="Scratch_drive_actuator" title="Scratch drive actuator">Scratch drive actuator</a></li>

<li><a href="MEMS_thermal_actuator" class="mw-redirect" title="MEMS thermal actuator">Thermal actuator</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="Switch" title="Switch">Switches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Digital_micromirror_device" title="Digital micromirror device">Digital micromirror device</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical switch">Optical switch</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">Millipede memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio-frequency_microelectromechanical_system" title="Radio-frequency microelectromechanical system">Radio-frequency microelectromechanical systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Microoptoelectromechanical_systems" title="Microoptoelectromechanical systems">Microoptoelectromechanical systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Microphotonics" title="Microphotonics">Microphotonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Bio-MEMS" title="Bio-MEMS">Biological microelectromechanical systems</a></li>

<li>Microfluidics</li>

<li><a href="Micropower" title="Micropower">Micropower</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Surface_micromachining" title="Surface micromachining">Surface micromachining</a></li>

<li><a href="Bulk_micromachining" title="Bulk micromachining">Bulk micromachining</a></li>

<li><a href="Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">HAR micromachining</a></li>

<li>Deposition</li>

<li>Lithography</li>

<li>Etching</li>

<li><a href="Wire_bonding" title="Wire bonding">Wire bonding</a></li>

<li><a href="3D_microfabrication" title="3D microfabrication">3D microfabrication</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="LOCOS" title="LOCOS">LOCOS</a></li>

<li><a href="Shallow_trench_isolation" title="Shallow trench isolation">Shallow trench isolation</a></li>

<li><a href="Photolithography" title="Photolithography">Photolithography</a></li>

<li><a href="Silicon_on_insulator" title="Silicon on insulator">Silicon on insulator</a></li>

<li><a href="Smart_cut" title="Smart cut">Smart cut</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Home_automation435" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Home_automation435" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Home_automation" title="Home automation">Home automation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Home_automation#System" title="Home automation">System</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actuator" title="Actuator">Actuators</a></li>

<li><a href="Programmable_logic_controller" title="Programmable logic controller">Hardware controllers</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Home_automation#Interconnection" title="Home automation">Interconnection <br>type</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Wire" title="Wire">Wired</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Cable (<a href="Digital_subscriber_line" title="Digital subscriber line">xDSL</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li>

<li><a href="Power-line_communication" title="Power-line communication">Powerline</a>

<ul><li><a href="PLCBUS" title="PLCBUS">PLCBUS</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_powerline_bus" title="Universal powerline bus">Universal powerline bus</a> (UPB)</li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">Radio frequency</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a></li>

<li><a href="Bluetooth_Low_Energy" title="Bluetooth Low Energy">Bluetooth Low Energy</a></li>

<li><a href="EnOcean" title="EnOcean">EnOcean</a></li>

<li><a href="MyriaNed" title="MyriaNed">MyriaNed</a></li>

<li><a href="Thread_(network_protocol)" title="Thread (network protocol)">Thread</a></li>

<li><a href="Zigbee" title="Zigbee">Zigbee</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a> (<a href="Consumer_IR" title="Consumer IR">Consumer IR</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Insteon" title="Insteon">Insteon</a></li>

<li><a href="Matter_(standard)" title="Matter (standard)">Matter</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Home_automation#Classifications_of_domestic_network_technologies" title="Home automation">Network<br>technologies,<br>by function</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Device<br>interconnection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">Bluetooth</a></li>

<li><a href="Bluetooth_Low_Energy" title="Bluetooth Low Energy">Bluetooth Low Energy</a></li>

<li><a href="IEEE_1394" title="IEEE 1394">FireWire</a></li>

<li><a href="Zigbee" title="Zigbee">Zigbee</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Control and<br>automation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="AllJoyn" title="AllJoyn">AllJoyn</a></li>

<li><a href="Bus_SCS" title="Bus SCS">Bus SCS</a> with <a href="OpenWebNet" title="OpenWebNet">OpenWebNet</a></li>

<li><a href="C-Bus_(protocol)" title="C-Bus (protocol)">C-Bus (protocol)</a></li>

<li><a href="CEBus" title="CEBus">CEBus</a></li>

<li><a href="EnOcean" title="EnOcean">EnOcean</a></li>

<li><a href="Insteon" title="Insteon">Insteon</a></li>

<li>Luxom</li>

<li><a href="LonWorks" title="LonWorks">LonWorks</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_powerline_bus" title="Universal powerline bus">Universal powerline bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Zigbee" title="Zigbee">Zigbee</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data<br>networking</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>

<li><a href="HomePlug" title="HomePlug">HomePlug</a></li>

<li><a href="HomePNA" title="HomePNA">HomePNA</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Home_automation#Tasks" title="Home automation">Tasks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Home_automation#Audio_and_video" title="Home automation">Audio and video</a></li>

<li><a href="Heating%2C_ventilation%2C_and_air_conditioning" title="Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning">Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning</a></li>

<li><a href="Lighting_control_system" title="Lighting control system">Lighting control system</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_automation#Other_systems" title="Home automation">Other systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_automation#Robotics" title="Home automation">Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_automation#Security" title="Home automation">Security</a></li>

<li><a href="Programmable_communicating_thermostat" title="Programmable communicating thermostat">Thermostat automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Residential_gateway" title="Residential gateway">Gateway</a></li>

<li><a href="Smart_home_hub" title="Smart home hub">Smart home hub</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Home_automation#Costs" title="Home automation">Costs</a></li>

<li><a href="Mesh_networking" title="Mesh networking">Mesh networking</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_automation#Organizations" title="Home automation">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<dd><a href="Home_of_the_future" title="Home of the future">Home of the future</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Building_automation" title="Building automation">Building automation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Floor_plan" title="Floor plan">Floor plan</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Home_automation" title="Home automation">Home automation</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Home_energy_monitor" title="Home energy monitor">Home energy monitor</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Home_network" title="Home network">Home network</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Home_server" title="Home server">Home server</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Robotic_mapping" title="Robotic mapping">House navigation system</a></dd>

<dd><a href="INTEGER_Millennium_House" title="INTEGER Millennium House">INTEGER Millennium House</a></dd>

<dd><a href="House_for_the_Future%2C_Cardiff" title="House for the Future, Cardiff">The House for the Future</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></dd>

<dd><a href="Xanadu_Houses" title="Xanadu Houses">Xanadu Houses</a></dd></dl>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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